The influence of the Golden Horde on ancient Rus'. The influence of the Golden Horde on the culture of ancient Rus' and modern Russia. Surnames that came from the Golden Horde

Scientific and practical journal

udk 34 on the issue of the influence of the Golden Horde on the development of the state of Rus'

Tsirulnikov Igor Sergeevich, student of the Murom Institute (branch) of Vladimir state university named after A. G. and N. G. Stoletov

[email protected]

Abstract: The article examines the issue of the influence of the Golden Horde on the development of the state of Rus', describes the concepts of a number of historians and authors on this issue with references to their works describing their opinions and arguments on this or that position. Key words: Golden Horde, Rus', positive influence, minor influence, negative influence, concepts of historians.

The question of the influence of the Golden Horde on Rus', or more precisely, in determining the nature of this influence, was and remains open and debatable. There is still no common position. Why can't historians come to a consensus on the answer to the question raised earlier? There are many reasons: a huge time difference, a small amount of accurate information and documents to establish the nature of the influence, different arguments of the historians themselves. All this provided the basis for differences in the positions of different historians of different times. But the debatable nature of this issue allows us to consider it from different sides and points of view, to evaluate both positive and negative aspects,

which is very important for analyzing the issue of the Horde’s influence on Rus'. This topic is very important both for the study of it by historians and for society as a whole, since the process involved in the issue was very long and left a huge imprint on Rus' in different aspects: political, social, spiritual. Therefore, the study of this issue should not be suspended or reduced to “no,” since an analysis of that time to resolve the issue will help to learn more information about Rus' at that time, about how Rus' developed and what was the influence of the Horde on this development: the oppression of the Yoke, diplomatic cooperation or little

About a question of influence of the Golden Horde on development of the state of Russia

Tsirul"nikov Igor" Sergeevich student of the Murom Institute (branch) of Vladimir State University named after A. G. and N. G. Stoletovs

[email protected]

Annotation: In the article the question of influence of the Golden Horde on the development of the state of Russia is considered, concepts of a number of historians and authors on the matter with references to their works describing their opinion and arguments on this or that position are described. Keywords: Golden Horde, Russia, positive influence, insignificant influence, negative influence, concepts of historians.

significant for the development of Rus' as a state. It is these three positions of historians that will be discussed below. But it is worth noting that these three “camps” of positions are not final and generally accepted. The issue is debatable, and therefore there are much more positions among historians.

Let us formulate them as follows:

1) the predominantly positive influence of the Golden Horde on Rus';

2) insignificant influence of the Golden Horde on Rus';

3) the extremely negative influence of the Golden Horde on Rus'.

It is also worth noting that, despite

such a division, in each of these points the opinions of historians are different in the level of influence: if we take the first point of view (the first “camp” of historians) as an example, then one historian may believe that the influence of the Horde on Rus' was exclusively positive, and another historian , who also belongs to this “camp”, will believe that the influence was positive, but not without negative traits. There is only one conclusion: there are differences between historians of the same “camp”, and, therefore, this issue is very difficult to study and analyze.

Let's take a closer look at each of the presented positions.

1) The predominantly positive influence of the Horde on Rus'. N.M. Karamzin is considered the founder. In order to understand Karamzin’s position on this issue, it is worth turning to his book “History of the Russian State.” Let us analyze excerpts from Chapter IV (“The State of Russia from the Invasion of the Tatars to John III”) of Volume V, since it best demonstrates Karamzin’s conclusions on the issue of the influence of the Horde on Rus'.

Karamzin identifies two sides in characterizing the influence of the Ig on Rus': negative and positive. “Batu’s invasion, a heap of ashes of corpses, captivity, slavery for such a long time constitute, of course, one of the greatest disasters known to us from the annals of the States...”, writes the author, thereby emphasizing, and therefore agreeing with many authors of the third point of view, that the Horde left an indelible and negative mark on the history of Rus'. But Karamzin also highlights a considerable number of positive aspects. “Another hundred years or more could have passed in the Princely civil strife: how would they have concluded? Probably, the death of our fatherland: Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, Sweden could divide it; then we would have lost both our state existence and the Faith, which were saved by Moscow; Moscow owes its greatness to the Khans,” concludes Karamzin. That is, the author emphasizes that without the invasion of the Horde and, as a consequence, the unity of the princes and people of Rus', the state could cease to exist due to internecine wars and the division of the territory of Rus' by European states. Also Karam-

zine sees others too positive aspects from Yoke for Rus': “One of the memorable consequences of Tatar domination over Russia was the rise of our Clergy, the proliferation of monks and church estates,” writes Karamzin. Also, because of the Horde, trade in Rus' developed, which, undoubtedly, was a good consequence for the state. But the main positive factor, which was announced earlier, is the unity of the state in the face of a common enemy, the end of civil strife that could have been disastrous for Rus'. This is precisely the point of view that N.M. Karamzin adheres to.

N.I. Kostomarov, as another representative of this point of view, in the article “The Beginning of Autocracy in Ancient Rus'” states that “in northeastern Rus' before the Tatars, no step was taken towards the destruction of the appanage-veche system,” thereby agreeing with Karamzin’s position on the need for the Horde invasion for the unification of Rus'.

L.N. Gumilyov adheres to a special point of view, although he is classified precisely in this “camp” of historians. In the book “Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe” he argues this way: “No, of course, the Mongols were not good-natured! They could not do otherwise, because on all three fronts - Chinese, Western Asia and Cuman-Russian - they were confronted by forces that significantly exceeded them in numbers and weapons.<...>Another thing is important: the collision of different fields of perception of the world always gives rise to a violent reaction - death

excess passionaries, bearers of different traditions." Gumilyov does not prioritize enmity and clashes between the Horde and Rus'; he believes that the main thing is the symbiosis of ethnic groups, which gave rise to new rounds in the culture of these ethnic groups, thereby the author emphasizes the influence of the Horde on the culture of Rus'. His book traces some of the views of the “Eurasians” who saw only positive aspects in the Horde’s conquest of Rus', but even if we draw a conclusion from the positions of the above mentioned authors with the expectation that they relate to the position of the positive influence of the Horde on Rus', we will notice that they see both positive and negative features, which is historically more plausible than the views of the “Eurasians.”

We can conclude that many authors of the first point of view, with the exception of the “Eurasianists”, believe that even with negative impact The hordes in Rus', the enslavement of one state by another, oppression and raids, the Igo also left positive “fruits” for Rus': the unity of the state, the end of civil strife, raising the spirit of the people, the clergy, strengthening autocracy and an imprint on the cultural heritage.

2) Insignificant influence of the Golden Horde on Rus'. Yes, most authors are inclined to believe that the Horde left an indelible mark on Rus', whether it was good or bad. But there are historians and authors who believe that, despite the existence of the Horde invasion of the Russian state, its further formation and changes in politics, both internal and external

this phenomenon had a minor impact and practically did not give any impetus for this or that change. Rus' went to everything on its own, and whether Igo or not, civil strife would have ceased to become obsolete, and the state from scattered and divided would have been transformed into a single and united state that could stand on a par with European ones.

Let us highlight three main representatives: S. M. Solovyov, K. D. Kavelin and V. O. Klyuchevsky. Let us analyze their points of view, united under one concept about the insignificant influence of the Horde on Rus'.

S. M. Solovyov in the book “History of Russia since Ancient Times” concludes that the dominance of the Tatars came to an end “due to the concentration and strengthening of the European state that began here” (by “here” is meant Rus'). Consequently, Solovyov argues that the formation of a unified state was carried out without the influence of the Horde, it only accelerated this process. But due to the fact that Solovyov paid little attention to studying this issue, most historians criticize his position.

K. D. Kavelin, in the article “A Look at the Legal Life of Ancient Rus',” states that “foreign conquerors never settled among us and therefore could not give our history their national character.”

“The influence of them [the Tatars] on our internal life was limited to sending tax collectors to Russia.<...>And the Mongol influence was limited to a few words included in

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our dictionary; maybe, and even probably, several customs that are not entirely flattering for us.” Kavelin, like Solovyov, does not see a big role for the Horde in the formation of a unified state, traditions and orders in Rus'. Only a small imprint was left by raids, tribute and other things that happened during the Tatar invasion.

V. O. Klyuchevsky in his work “Russian History” also believes that the Horde was not even interested in interfering in the affairs of Rus', therefore, its contribution to the development of Rus' was practically zero. He writes: “The Horde khans did not impose any of their rules on Rus', being content with tribute, they even poorly delved into the order that was in effect there. And it was difficult to delve into it, because it was impossible to discern any order in the relations between the local princes.” Klyuchevsky is categorical in relation to Rus' itself, considering the relations in the state of that time to be a kind of chaos, so there was no point in the Tatars interfering in such relations between the princes.

As can be seen from the conclusions of these authors, the position about the insignificant influence of being and there are arguments for this. But even with the insignificant influence of the Horde on Rus', historians of this point of view still do not deny the invasion of the Horde itself and admit small, but still existing imprints in the history of Rus' left by the Ig.

3) The negative influence of the Golden Horde on the Russian state.

Let's move on to the most common point of view among historians. Let's highlight how

and before, the main representatives: A. Richter, M. S. Gastev and B. D. Grekov together with A. Yu. Yakubovsky. It is worth understanding that the list does not end with these authors.

A. Richter, as a successor of Karamzin’s ideas, brought up by his books, in his work “Research on the influence of the Mongol-Tatars on Russia”, transmitted through the materials “Domestic Notes”, argues that “under the dominance of the Mongols and Tatars, the Russians were almost degenerated into Asians, and although they hated their oppressors, they imitated them in everything and entered into kinship with them when they converted to Christianity.” From this excerpt it is clear that the Igo had a detrimental effect on Rus', on the orders, traditions, and faith of the people.

M. S. Gastev also believes that the influence of the Ig on Rus' was detrimental and negative for the entire Russian people and for the development of the state as a whole. He writes that the time of the Tatar invasion is “a time of the greatest disorder, the greatest misfortune for our fatherland, one of those times that weighs down on a person and suffocates him.” As you can see, both authors are unanimous in their opinion about the influence of the Horde on Rus'.

B. D. Grekov, together with A. Yu. Yakubovsky, in the work “The Golden Horde and Its Fall,” condemn many authors of both the first and second points of view for their assessment of the influence of the Horde on Rus' and their lack of understanding of the real reasons for the cessation of civil strife and other reasons “ inhibition" of the development of Rus'. “Not with the assistance of the Tatars, but precisely in the process of the difficult struggle of the Russian people against the Golden Horde-

“The Russian state with Moscow at its head was created by Russian oppression,” the authors conclude, emphasizing the severe and irreparable consequences of the Tatar Yoke for Rus'.

Most of the authors of this point of view are inclined to believe that the Tatar-Mongol Yoke stopped Rus' in its development, throwing it back several hundred years; it united not because of cooperation with the Horde, but in the fight against it, in defending the sovereignty of the state. This point of view is directly opposite to the first, although it has its own differences in assessing the severity of the consequences of the Tatar Yoke for Rus', which makes it possible to note the controversial nature of each point of view.

So, we can summarize all of the above. The question of the nature of the influence of the Golden Horde on Rus' remains debatable and controversial to this day. Each group of historians provides its own arguments to support its conclusions and positions. This makes this issue relevant and unresolved both in the past and in the present, and, possibly, in the future. It is worth noting that one of the reasons for the disagreement is the large temporal difference between generations, as well as the small number of reliable sources of that time that can give a complete picture of the events of those centuries. Therefore, persistent study and search for answers to it will provide more diverse information both about the state of Rus' and about neighboring tribes and states.

Notes

1. Karamzin N. M. History of the Russian State. St. Petersburg, 1616-1829.

2. Kostomarov N. I. The beginning of autocracy in Ancient Rus'. St. Petersburg, 1872.

3. Gumilev L.N. Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe. M., 1997. Part 4. Chapter XX.

4. Solovyov S. M. History of Russia since ancient times. St. Petersburg, 1851-1879.

5. Kavelin K.D. A look at the legal existence of ancient Rus'. M., 1989.

6. Klyuchevsky V. O. Russian history. M., 1993. Lecture XXII.

7. Research on the influence of the Mongol-Tatars on Russia // Otechestvennye zapiski. 1825. T. XXII. N 62.

8. Gastev M. S. Reasoning about the reasons that slowed down civil education in the Russian state before Peter the Great. M., 1832.

9. Grekov B. D., Yakubovsky A. Yu. The Golden Horde and its fall. M., 1950. Part 2. Chapter 7.

The Mongol-Tatar conquest dramatically changed the nature of contacts and the direction of cultural ties of Rus'. It should be noted that the development of culture is organic component history of society, therefore, the determination of the movement of culture should be sought outside of it itself, first of all, in the development of all spheres public life- social, socio-political, economic. Culture is, first of all, a reflection of ongoing changes in society. It is from these positions that we consider it necessary to consider the influence of the Mongol-Tatar conquest on the development of Russian culture.

Let us briefly consider the consequences of the Tatar-Mongol invasion. The impact on the economic sphere was expressed, firstly, in the direct devastation of territories during the Horde campaigns and raids, which were especially frequent in the second half of the 13th century. The heaviest blow was dealt to the cities. Secondly, the conquest led to the systematic siphoning of significant material resources in the form of the Horde “exit” and other extortions, which bled the country dry.

The Horde sought to actively influence the political life of Rus'. The efforts of the conquerors were aimed at preventing the consolidation of Russian lands by pitting some principalities against others and weakening them mutually. Sometimes the khans went to change the territorial and political structure of Rus' for these purposes: on the initiative of the Horde, new principalities were formed (Nizhny Novgorod) or the territories of old ones were divided (Vladimir). The consequence of the invasion of the 13th century. there was an increase in the isolation of the Russian lands, a weakening of the southern and western principalities. As a result, they were included in the structure that arose in the 13th century. early feudal state - the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities - by the beginning of the 14th century, Volyn - in the middle of the 14th century, Kiev and Chernigov - in the 60s of the 14th century, Smolensk - at the beginning of the 15th century. Russian statehood was preserved as a result only in North-Eastern Rus' (Vladimir-Suzdal land), in the Novgorod, Murom and Ryazan lands. It was North-Eastern Rus' from approximately the second half of the 14th century. became the core of the formation of the Russian state. At the same time, the fate of the western and southern lands was finally determined.

Thus, in the XIV century. The old political structure, which was characterized by independent principalities-lands, governed by different branches of the princely family of Rurikovich, within which smaller vassal principalities existed, ceased to exist. The disappearance of this political structure also marked the subsequent collapse of the structure that had developed in the 9th - 10th centuries. Old Russian people - the ancestor of the three currently existing East Slavic peoples. In the territories of North-Eastern and North-Western Rus', the Russian (Great Russian) nationality begins to gradually take shape, while in the lands that became part of Lithuania and Poland - the Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities.

In addition to these “visible” consequences of conquest, significant structural changes can also be traced in the socio-economic and political spheres of ancient Russian society. In the pre-Mongol period, feudal relations in Rus' developed in general according to a pattern characteristic of all European countries: from the predominance of state forms of feudalism at an early stage to the gradual strengthening of patrimonial forms, although slower than in Western Europe. After the invasion, this process slows down, and state forms of exploitation are conserved. This was largely due to the need to find funds to pay for the “exit”.

Thus, the dispersal of Russian master craftsmen in the Mongolian world temporarily depleted the source of experience of Rus' proper and could not but interrupt the development of production traditions. Thus, slate whorls were no longer made; the production of glass bracelets and beads sharply decreased and then disappeared; the production of ceramic amphorae ceased; the art of cloisonne enamel experienced a sharp decline; the complex technique of niello and granulation in jewelry was revived only in the 16th century; the art of the white stone carvers, whose creations we admire when examining the pre-Mongol Dmitrov Cathedral in Yuryev Polsky, was lost; Multi-colored building ceramics disappeared for several centuries. The production of filigree stopped for almost a century, after which it resumed under the influence of Central Asian samples. Construction crafts in Eastern Rus' have undergone significant regression. Fewer stone buildings were erected in the first century of Mongol rule than in the previous century, and the quality of the work noticeably deteriorated.

The influence of the Mongol-Tatars is more pronounced in the elements of Russian everyday culture, introducing changes in everyday life, clothing, jewelry, and the sphere of trade relations. Clothes changed: along with long white Slavic shirts and long pants, golden caftans, colored trousers and morocco boots, women's jewelry like beads, beads, shells, etc. came into use. The Mongols introduced abacus, felt boots, and dumplings into Russian culture. The comparison reveals the identity of Russian and Asian carpentry and joinery tools, which can also be considered as a result of the interpenetration of two cultures. Some studies indicate the similarity of the walls of the Kremlins of Beijing (Khan-Balyk) and Moscow and other cities.

Living in the neighborhood and the constant interaction of Russians with the Tatar-Mongols could not but affect the language. Thus, many Turkic words came into the Russian language, which contemporaries (except for specialists in the field of linguistics) do not regard as borrowed. Many Mongolian words have been preserved relating to the state (Cossack, guard, label) and economic structure (treasury, tamga (where customs comes from), goods). Other borrowings relate to such areas as construction (tin, brick, shack), jewelry (turquoise, pearls, earrings), vegetable garden (watermelon, rhubarb), fabrics (calico, felt, calico, braid), clothing and footwear (shoe, caftan , sash, veil, stocking, pants). Lexical borrowings of this period include such well-known words as badger, damask steel, pencil, dagger, target, elephant, cockroach, prison.

The long period of interaction between Rus' and the Golden Horde could not help but leave its mark on the folklore of the Russian people. According to some information, the most significant block of proverbs concerning the stay of foreigners in Kievan Rus, dedicated to the Mongol-Tatars. In proverbs and sayings, people complain about the hardships of the Mongol yoke. As the main source we used the monograph “Proverbs of the Russian people. Collection of V. Dahl in two volumes” (M. Fiction. 1984). Here are a number of Russian proverbs reflecting the Mongolian period in the history of Rus':

“Strike a flash, the Tatar is coming” (Raise the alarm, worry, excite).

“This is pure Tatarism” (Memories of the Tatar power; violence, tyranny).

“It’s too early for the Tatars to go to Rus'”

"Only the Tatars take it forcefully"

“I wouldn’t wish it on an evil Tatar” (So bad).

“The Tatar honor is more evil than evil” (In the sense that the price of the enemy’s mercy is too great, exorbitant for a noble, decent person)

“An uninvited guest is worse than a Tatar” (Usually said with annoyance about a person who came to visit without an invitation or at the wrong time; usually behind his back)

"Angrier than the evil Tatar" (Very evil)

“They caused us a lot of trouble - the Crimean Khan and the Pope”

"Elders are revered in the Horde"

"Don't teach a white swan to swim or a boyar's son to fight the Tatars"

“Empty, as if Mamai had passed” (Option: It’s as if Mamai fought here)

"The Real Mama's Massacre"

"The sword is sharp, but there is no one to flog: the Tatars are in Crimea, and the Pope is in Lithuania"

“The time has passed for the Tatars (enemies) to go to Rus'”

“And the Tatars take the sitting one” (Dishonesty)

The close intertwining of the two cultures is also evidenced by the enrichment of the history of the genealogies of Russian families interspersed with Mongol-Tatar roots. Thus, famous scientists S.B. Veselovsky and N.A. The Baskakovs believe that the influence of the serving Turkic nobility on the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate; people from this environment even became sovereigns of all Rus'. In their works they provide genealogies of famous Russian families with Tatar-Mongolian roots. Here are a few names:

1. Bunins ( Russian writer, poet - Bunin I. A.) From Bunin Prokuda Mikhailovich (died in 1595), whose grandfather, who came from the Horde to the Ryazan princes, received lands in the Ryazhsky district
2. Karamzins ( writer, poet, historian N.M. Karamzin) The official genealogy notes the origin of the surname from the Tatar Murza named Kara Murza. The etymology of the nickname of the surname Karamza - Karamurza is quite transparent: kara “black”, murza ~ mirza “lord, prince”.
3. Rachmaninoffs(Russian composer S.V. Rachmaninov). From Rahman (from the Arab-Muslim Rahman "merciful") from the Horde.
4. Scriabins ( Russian composer and pianist - A.N. Skryambin) From Sokur Bey from the Horde. The etymology of Sokur Bey is “blind bey.”
5. Turgenevs ( Russian writer I.S. Turgenev) From Murza Turgen Lev (Arslan), who came out from the Horde to Great Britain around 1440. book Vasily Ivanovich. The surname Turgenev may have a Mongolian basis - the qualitative adjective turgen is Mongolian."fast", "quick", "hasty", "hot-tempered".
6. Languages ( famous poet, friend of Pushkin N.M. Languages) From Yengulai Language from the Golden Horde. The time of publication, obviously, should be attributed to the turn of the XIV-XV centuries, since in the XV century the Yazykovs, as Russian nobles, were already well known

Thus, the Mongol-Tatar conquest had a significant overall impact on ancient Russian civilization. In addition to the direct consequences of the Horde policy, structural deformations are observed here, which ultimately led to a change in the type of feudal development of the country. The Moscow monarchy was not directly created by the Mongol-Tatars, rather on the contrary: it developed in spite of the Horde and in the fight against it. However, indirectly, it was the consequences of the influence of the conquerors that determined many of the essential features of this state and its social system, which manifested themselves in the culture of this period and developed multi-componently at subsequent stages of the development of Russian culture.

As we see, the problem of Mongolian influence on Rus' is multidimensional; in general, the development of culture can be distinguished as:

The immediate effect of the Mongol invasion was destruction cities And destruction population. Traditional ties with Byzantium were severed, Western Europe, the Muslim East, many centers of culture were destroyed or devastated. All this led to cultural isolation .

Most researchers of ancient Russian life note suspension cultural development country due to the Mongol invasion. A general decline in the cultural level, a general coarsening of morals were the immediate results of the invasion.

A difficult question is the influence of the Mongols on formation future Russian statehood, which was brought to the forefront in the 20th century by representatives of the Eurasian current of social thought. Eurasians believed that on the territory of Russia, thanks to the introduction of the Turanian (Turkic) element into Russian culture has developed new ethnotype, pawned basics psychology Russian person. Many of the positions of the Eurasians are highly controversial, but they greatly stimulated further research.

There was no direct impact of Mongolian law on Russian, but V sphere criminal rights are becoming stricter punishments: the death penalty, whipping, and torture are introduced.

Borrowing from the Mongols affected military in fact, primarily on the device of cavalry. According to Eurasians, Rus' borrowed such features of the military valor of the Mongol conquerors as courage and endurance in overcoming obstacles.

IN Russian language Many Mongol words have been preserved relating to money and taxation, this was associated with the collection of tribute and various taxes. The Mongols did not have any cultural tax policy; they always wanted to sculpt as much as possible using the crudest techniques and means.

The Moscow tsars took over from the Mongols etiquette diplomatic negotiations. Their familiarity with the Mongolian way of conducting diplomacy was very helpful in relations with the Eastern powers, especially with those that became the successors of the Golden Horde, but misunderstandings occurred in relations with Western countries due to discrepancies in etiquette.

In the 11th century Rus' reached its peak and stood on the same level as European countries in terms of economic development and government structure. But the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars stopped its development, if not threw it back a step lower, while Europe continued to move forward. Although, Karamzin says, it is unknown how the fate of Russia would have turned out if not the Tatar-Mongols, but, say, the Swedes, Poles or Lithuanians had captured it.

Bearing in mind the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar yoke for Rus', it should be noted that it led to a long decline in the economic, political and cultural development of Russian lands, and marked the beginning of their lagging behind advanced Western European countries. The old agricultural centers and once-developed territories became desolate and fell into decay. The borders of agriculture moved north. Russian cities were subjected to massive devastation and destruction, their role in the political and economic life of the country fell, disappeared forever, or were revived only after 150-300 years, such crafts as filigree, niello, cloisonne enamel, polychrome glazed ceramics, stone carving, etc. Suspended stone construction, fine and applied arts fell into decay. The connection between urban crafts and the market weakened, and the development of commodity production slowed down. Tribute in "silver" led to its leakage into the Horde and the almost complete cessation money circulation inside Russian lands. Finally, tens of thousands of people died in battles or were driven into slavery as a result of the continuous raids of the Mongol-Tatars on Russian lands. Only in the last quarter of the 13th century. There were 14 major invasions of Rus', not counting many smaller raids. Many cities, for example, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Murom. Suzdal and Ryazan were destroyed again and again.

It took almost a century of hard work and heroic struggle of the people to restore the economy in these difficult conditions and ensure its further rise as a necessary basis for the liquidation feudal fragmentation and the creation of a Russian centralized state.

Thus, XII-XIII centuries. in the development of the country there were a very difficult and contradictory era. The period of feudal fragmentation experienced by Russia, which was a natural stage in the development of the feudal formation, coincided with foreign aggression, both from the west and from the east. Having repelled the threat from the west in the middle of the 13th century. The Russian lands suffered a terrible defeat as a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and fell under the yoke of the Golden Horde for almost two and a half centuries, which helped to consolidate the defense of the Russian lands from European states and led to the acceleration in the socio-economic and political structure of the Russian lands of features introduced by the conquerors. characteristic of eastern despotism.

However, there were also positive aspects. New trade routes opened to replace the ancient route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”: with the East through the Horde, with Constantinople and the West through Don-Azov.

The great Moscow princes managed to put an end to their appanages and create a politically united Russian state, despite the fact that its individual regions, the “lands,” continued for another two centuries to live a self-sufficient, economic life isolated from one another.

Three main features of the formation of Russian statehood can be noted. This is, firstly, the combat system of the state.

The second feature was the non-legal nature of internal management and social composition. Centralization was accompanied by the enslavement of the peasantry and increased class differentiation.

The third feature of the Moscow state order was unlimited supreme power with an indefinite scope of action. Byzantine and Eastern influences led to strong despotic tendencies in the structure and politics of power. The main support of autocratic power was not the union of cities with the nobility, but the local nobility.

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ABSTRACT

Influence of the Evilsfrom the Horde to medieval Rus'

Introduction

The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of the Middle Ages, whose possessions were located in Europe and Asia. Its military power constantly kept all its neighbors in suspense and was not challenged by anyone for a very long time. The social structure of the Golden Horde was complex and reflected a variegated class and national composition this robber state. There was no clear class organization of society, similar to that which existed in Rus' and in Western European feudal states and which was based on hierarchical feudal ownership of land.

The status of a subject of the Golden Horde depended on his origin, services to the khan and his family, and his position in the military-administrative apparatus. In the military-feudal hierarchy of the Golden Horde, the dominant position was occupied by the aristocratic family of the descendants of Genghis Khan and his son Jochi.

This numerous family owned all the land of the state, it owned huge herds, palaces, many servants and slaves, innumerable wealth, military booty, the state treasury, etc. In the Golden Horde there were two highest administrative ranks: “daruga” and “baskak” - tribute collectors. The office occupied an important place in the management system. In the centers of the state the khan had divans; (how many of them were unknown). The divans had secretaries called bitikchi (scribes). The most important was the sofa, which controlled all income and expenses. In addition to the main bitikchi, there were also bitikchi in ordinary sofas.

In the administrative and political life of the Golden Horde, decrees were issued. These decrees were called labels.

Relations between the Golden Horde and Russian lands

In 1235, the kurultai (congress of the Mongolian nobility) decided the issue of the Great Western Expedition, where approximately half of the entire imperial army (approximately 70 thousand) went. The grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu, was placed at the head of the army. After the conquest of the Volga Bulgaria, the Mordovians and the Polovtsians, the army approached the borders of Rus'. Two powerful blows followed. In the winter of 1237/38. The Tatars took Ryazan and Vladimir and quickly advanced to Uglich, Kostroma, and Tver.

Fast movement and the use of siege equipment allowed the Tatars to individually destroy and besiege the cities of North-Eastern Rus'. In 1239/40 Batu's army marched through Southern and Southwestern Rus', then through Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary to conquer Europe. In 1242, the khan led his army from Croatia to the Volga steppes, where a new ulus of the empire was founded - the Golden Horde.

The Golden Horde in its heyday (until the end of the 14th century) was a huge state stretching from west to east from the Danube to Altai; in the south the border was the Caucasus, in the north - the regions of Central Russia (Kursk, Tula and Kaluga), where the local population was ruled by the Tatar administration. The power of Khan Batu had a clear administrative division into 4 uluses and 70 provinces. The economic base of the state was about 100 prosperous cities (Azov, Stary Krym, Astrakhan, Tyumen) led by the capital Saray. Developed handicraft production and trade were stimulated by a unified and stable monetary system and well-equipped roads. The power of the khan rested on a large army and a centralized state apparatus.

The Golden Horde’s policy towards Russian lands throughout its history, according to researchers, went through several stages:

1st stage (1243-1257). Formal control was exercised from Karakorum, and direct executive power and the organization of military campaigns against Rus' were in the hands of the Golden Horde khans.

2nd stage (1257-1312). The peak of the collapse of Russian lands and the initial stage of the ethnogenesis of the Great Russians. The most difficult period of the yoke of the Horde: the structure of Rus''s vassal dependence on the Horde, the Basque system, was organized, and a population census was carried out.

3rd stage (1312-1328). Cancellation of baskachestvo. Against the backdrop of Islamization and the overcoming of nomadic traditions in the Golden Horde, the formation of a grand-ducal system of governing Russian lands takes place with the constant intervention of the khans in the internal political life of Rus'.

4th stage (1328-1357). The growth of anti-Horde sentiments, the struggle of political centers for primacy among the Russian principalities, which have special relations with the khan's power. In the future, there is a process of steady increase in the military and economic power of the Russian lands, led by Moscow, and the strengthening of their unity. The Russian princes managed, taking advantage of the strife in the Golden Horde, to weaken the yoke and, after a crushing blow in 1380 on the Kulikovo Field, despite Tokhtamysh’s restoration of the dependence of the Russian principalities, to virtually eliminate the organization and conduct of military raids on the Moscow state in the 15th century.

Golden Horde Russian state

The following changes have occurred in cities. In the XI-XII centuries. In Russian cities, that original way of life gradually emerged, which in Europe was called the “urban system.” Citizens in Rus' actively fought for urban liberties and played an important role in political affairs. Subsequently, the traditions of “popular rule” were not developed. After the reign of dependence on the Horde in Rus', extremely unfavorable conditions were created for the formation of a special urban system. This is due to a number of reasons. The cities suffered the most from the invasion; they were constantly subjected to raids and raids by the khan's ambassadors. Under these conditions, the ancient veche falls silent. But the strengthening of princely power, supported by the khan’s labels from Sarai, is rapidly progressing.

The power of the thousand is gradually concentrated in the hands of large boyar families and is inherited. In the post-Mongol period, ancient democratic customs faded away, and in the XIV-XV centuries. cities become predominantly princely centers. After the Battle of Kulikovo, Rus' strengthened its faith in its national strength, which played an important role in its final victory over the Horde.

From that time on, the Russians stopped looking at the Horde as an irresistible force, as an inevitable and eternal punishment of God. Frequent raids on Rus' contributed to the creation of a unified state, as Karamzin said: “Moscow owes its greatness to the khans!” Kostomarov emphasized the role of the khan's labels in strengthening the power of the Grand Duke.

At the same time, they did not deny the influence of the devastating Tatar-Mongol campaigns on Russian lands and the collection of heavy tribute. The Mongol-Tatar conquests also led to a significant deterioration in the international position of the Russian principalities. Ancient trade and cultural ties with neighboring states were forcibly severed. Trade fell into decline. The invasion dealt a strong destructive blow to the culture of the Russian principalities. The conquests led to a long decline in Russian chronicle writing, which reached its peak at the beginning of Batu's invasion.

The Mongol-Tatar conquests artificially delayed the spread of commodity-money relations, and subsistence farming did not develop. As a result, a unique type of feudalism was formed in Rus', in which the “Asian element” was quite strongly represented. The formation of such a unique type was facilitated by the fact that, as a result of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, Rus' developed for 240 years in isolation from Europe.

Conclusion

Thus, if we talk about the relationship between the Horde and Rus', then the birth and development of the Golden Horde had a strong influence on the development of the Russian state, because for many years its history was tragically intertwined with the fate of the Russian lands and became an inseparable part Russian history. The main result of the Mongol invasion - the destruction of cities and extermination of the population - played a role in all aspects of the life of Russian society. This was manifested in the reduction of the power of the veche, and then its complete destruction, in the destruction people's militia, which contributed to the creation of a regular army, and in changing the position of almost all sectors of society, which from free turned into those attached to the service of the monarch. The Mongol conquest led to a change in the type of state development.

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With the “cursed” Horde

“Lenta.ru”: After the release of the series “Golden Horde” in 2018, Kazan historians were indignant that it “portrayed the Horde as some kind of infernal evil that exists outside of Rus' and is a malicious force that oppresses Rus'.” Indeed, the word “horde” in Russian has a clearly negative connotation. Just remember the song “Holy War” or how now Ukrainian trolls on social networks, trying to somehow offend the Russians, call us Horde people. Where does this historical tradition come from, which he called the “black legend”?

This tradition dates back to the times when the word “horde” penetrated the language and consciousness of the Russian people. The film you are talking about is entirely in line with our Russian-centric culture. A negative attitude towards the Horde is a product of Russian historical memory. Since the 13th century, it has been associated with ruin, with heavy tribute and devastating raids. This was the only time in history when Russian land was conquered. Of course, all this did not contribute to a positive perception of the Horde. In addition, such an idea was layered on the peculiarities of the consciousness of medieval man.

Was this consciousness special?

The Russian people viewed the Mongol invasion as heavenly punishment, as God's punishment for the previous decades of continuous civil strife and strife. This also added a negative meaning to the concept of “Horde” in Russian. But at the same time, the perception of Horde rule as a punishment for sins was expressed in the fact that in Rus' it was endured humbly. After all, for all the long decades of Horde power, there was not a single uprising against itself; only unrest broke out against its abuses.

But what about the major uprisings in Novgorod and in the cities of North-Eastern Rus' at the turn of the 1250-1260s?

This is what I'm talking about. These were protests not against the khan’s power as such, but against abuses on the part of Muslim tax farmers collecting tribute in Russian cities. In the same row is the uprising against the excesses of the Khan's ambassador and his retinue in Tver in 1327.

Still from the TV series “Golden Horde”

But I agree with historians from Tatarstan that now we need to move away from previous historiographical stereotypes and outdated journalistic cliches in the depiction of the Golden Horde. It was a much more interesting and complex phenomenon, and not at all a gathering of ferocious nomadic steppe robbers, as many of us still believe.

But there is also an opposite point of view, which is now actively promoted by historians from Tatarstan and Kazakhstan. They seek to prove that the Horde was a brilliant, highly developed civilization of Eurasia. How does this correspond to reality?

The truth, as usual, is in the middle. The problem is this. The Golden Horde was a complex organism. If you read the works of current Tatarstan and Kazakh historians, as well as the works of archaeologists studying the Golden Horde cities, you will get the impression that it was a developed urban civilization with a high, distinctive culture. In reality, the vast majority of the inhabitants of the Golden Horde remained nomadic pastoralists. This is a completely different pole of culture, which is difficult to grasp archaeologically.

In addition, the sources known to us (although they were mostly written by foreigners who had never been to the Horde) tell exactly what happened in the cities - about the events at the Khan’s court, the mood among the aristocracy and merchants. But the nomadic steppe - the basis of the Golden Horde - was beyond their attention. Therefore, from my point of view, talking about the Horde as a brilliant, highly developed civilization of Eurasia is still a one-sided idea.

A kind of yoke

How appropriate is it to use the phrase “Mongol-Tatar yoke”? It seems that several years ago in history textbooks it was replaced with a neutral one: “the system of dependence of Russian lands on the Horde khans.”

This was a kind of concession to historians from Tatarstan, which I, of course, understand. But I believe that we should not abandon the word “yoke.” You just need to explain its meaning, especially since it has long been turned into a scientific term. I think that we should not violate the established historiographical tradition by looking back at the complexes of some modern descendants of the Golden Horde. In the end, the Horde yoke in Rus' was much less severe than the five-hundred-year Ottoman yoke in the Balkans.

The influence of the Golden Horde on ancient Rus'. The influence of the Golden Horde on the culture of ancient Rus' and modern Russia. Surnames that came from the Golden Horde

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