Basic philosophical and religious ideas of Shintoism. Shintoism is the Japanese national religion. The Origin and Codification of Shintoism

Classic Shintoism (Shinto) as the national religion of Japan is a set of local traditions of veneration of certain deities.

The problem of the ethnogenesis of the Japanese still remains not fully clarified. It is believed that many peoples of East Asia took part in this process, which was generally completed by the beginning of the new era. In line with the formation of a special culture of the Japanese people, the formation of a complex of religious ideas that had the features of animism, fetishism and totemism took place. Magic and shamanism also played a significant role in this complex. For a long time, these religious beliefs and practices did not have a common name. The need for it appears as the Japanese state expands and consolidates. At the beginning of the 8th century. By order of Empress Genmei, the first pseudo-historical chronicles of a mythological nature were compiled - “Kojiki” (“Records of Ancient Acts,” 712) and “Nihon Shoki” (“Annals of Japan,” 720). It was in “Nihon Shoki” that the term “Shinto” (finished, way of the gods) was first used. In addition to these two works, “Fudoki” (8th century), or “Descriptions of Manners and Lands,” is a valuable source for understanding the ancient beliefs of the Japanese.

The peculiarities of Shintoism include the lack of differentiation of the actual religious components from everyday life his followers. Only in 1868, after the restoration of the power of the monarch in the country, was an attempt made to turn this blurred multitude of cults into a state religion. State Shinto became a source of growing nationalist sentiment in the country. This period ended with the defeat of Japan in World War II. In addition to folk and state Shinto, scientists also distinguish sectarian Shinto, individual movements of which have appeared since the 19th century. This type of Shinto is characterized by a high degree of syncretism; Shinto ideas themselves are combined in it with ideas taken from other religions. Finally, there is also temple Shinto, or the system of rituals performed at shrines by Shinto priests (kannushi).

Shintoism is a polytheistic religion. The main objects of veneration in it are numerous Komi There is no canonical definition of kami in Shinto texts. In religious studies, kami are usually understood as deities. However, due to its vagueness, the word “kami” can also mean various spirits, including the spirits of deceased ancestors, and in a broad sense - in general, everything that seems very unusual, wonderful. Initially, kami were revered as faceless and nameless spirits of certain natural objects - fields, mountains, rivers, etc. Over time, some of them become more famous, go beyond the boundaries of local communities, where they are revered, receiving special names and mythological stories. Kami are very closely connected with the objects for which they are “responsible”, which is typical even for deities of the highest status (for example, Amaterasu). This idea of the concreteness and functionality of deities, associated with the peculiarities of the Japanese mentality, prevented the emergence of the idea of a supreme and only deity. “Official” mythology divided the kami into earthly, celestial and “countless”, establishing ranks of different dignity for them.

The worldview tolerance, as well as the pragmatism of the Japanese, allowed them to painlessly include supernatural characters from other religions in the pantheon of kami, who sometimes changed their functions. Among these “foreign” kami one can single out, for example, the Buddhist bodhisattva Kshitigarbha (Jap. Jizo), who became the patron saint of deceased children in Japan. The popular group of the seven gods of happiness also includes kami of foreign origin: Hotei, whose prototype was the Chinese Buddhist monk Qitsi (Japanese: Kangxi); Daikokuten (Sanskrit: Mahakala, epithet of Shiva), guarding the hearth; Benzaiten (Skt. Saraswati), water deity, etc.

The sun goddess Amaterasu occupies a dominant position in the Shinto pantheon. The cult of this goddess was for a long time the prerogative of the imperial family and therefore was not widespread. The popularization of Amaterasu begins in the 17th century. In addition to her, the god of war Hachiman, the couple of progenitor gods Izanagi and Izanami, the god of the wind Susanoo, the main deity of the Izumo province - Okuninushi, the god of thunder Tenzin and many others are also widely known. Most of the sanctuaries (32 thousand) belong to the agricultural god Inari.

Shinto is a theanthropic type of religion, characterized by blurred boundaries between deities and people. The deities did not create people, but gave birth to them; hence the attitude of people towards kami as their ancestors. This or that clan called its divine ancestor ujigami (kami of the clan), and themselves - ujiko (children of the clan). Therefore, the cult of ancestors is of great importance in Shinto. The number of kami is constantly replenished by dead people. When a person dies, his soul is in a state of “rampage” (arama) for some time, then it calms down, and 33 years after death, the deceased ancestor himself becomes a kami. But in some cases, people are revered as kami during their lifetime. This is most characteristic of the person of the emperor (mikado), a “living god” of high rank. The imperial family is traditionally traced to Amaterasu. According to legend, the sun goddess ordered her grandson Ninigi to descend to earth (i.e., the Japanese islands) and rule it. The grandson of Ninigi himself was the first earthly emperor, Jimmu, from whom all subsequent generations of emperors descend. In addition to the political governance of the country, the emperor also performed the duties of the high priest, performing the required rituals and offering norito prayers to the deities. Three important regalia are considered symbols of sacred imperial power: magatama beads, a mirror and a sword. The most important symbol is the mirror, which has been used since the 19th century. symbolizes Shintoism as such. During the XII-XIX centuries. The Mikado were deprived of direct political power, while at the same time retaining priestly power. In 1868, direct imperial rule was restored, which lasted until August 1945, when, in an address to the nation, Emperor Hirohito announced surrender, and also that the imperial family did not go back to Amaterasu, thereby effectively abandoning status of a "living god".

The bearer of the classical Shinto religion is not an individual, but the entire community. On behalf of the community, priests-kannusp (lit., masters of the kami) come into contact with the kami. The ritual side prevails in Shinto over the ideological side; observance of commandments and regulations is of great importance. Everything that is pure and light is considered good, everything unclean and dark is considered evil. Physical pollution can be equated with ethical impurity. The polluting effect on a person is primarily caused by death, as well as by what is associated with it - for example, blood. Impurity is removed by performing cleansing rituals using white substances and observing fasts of varying degrees of severity. For the community, cleansing from filth is performed by the community priest, but on a national scale, the cleansing ceremony is performed by the emperor as the supreme pontiff.

Initially, Shinto did not have shrines as separate buildings. In order to distinguish a particular object from its surroundings as sacred, it was fenced off with a special shimenawa rope. Such an object was most often a tree onto which deities were believed to descend from above. Later, trees as places for the kami to descend were replaced by pillars, which became central parts sanctuaries This is the so-called "body of god" ( Xingtai). The “body of a kami” can be an entire mountain or grove.

The first places of worship were shaped like barns. It is believed that permanent buildings began to be built relatively late, not earlier than the 7th century. The oldest and most important Shinto shrine is located in Ise (Central Japan). Until the end of the 12th century. Imperial princesses became servants in Ise

bonds of blood, who took a vow of celibacy and, if necessary, served as oracles on important political issues. Some important Shinto shrines in the Heian era (8th-12th centuries) were under the control of the emperor and local authorities, supported by public funds and divided into ranks. However, from the end of the 12th century. Due to a change in political course caused by the rise to power of shoguns sympathetic to Buddhism and a lack of funding, the importance of such sanctuaries began to decrease. During the period 1868-1945. the practice of state provision of Shinto shrines was restored. After 1945, most of the shrines became part of the Main Directorate of Shinto Shrines (Jinja Honcho), which is of a public nature.

Shinto shrines ( jinja) differ from each other in size, elements of buildings, significance, order of services and their number. Typically, a Shinto shrine consists of several rooms: the kami pavilion (where the "kami's body" is kept), the veneration pavilion, and the offering pavilion. A characteristic element of a Shinto shrine is the sacred torii gate. The temple complex in Ise is surrounded by the sacred Temple River (Miyagawa), separating the sacred space of the complex from the secular world.

The veneration of deities consists of praising them, treating them, giving various gifts and entertaining them. Before the service, priests perform purification ceremonies, prepare vegetarian food and pray to God to come down and taste it. Food offered to the deities is then eaten by people; it is believed that she is filled with various perfections. At the end of the veneration ceremonies, the ritual of raising the kami is performed. Worship of deities can be carried out not only in temples, but also at home, on special kamidana altars. Entertainment includes various public holidays on a religious basis. Ritual dances are held, competitions of sumo wrestlers, archers and fencers are held, Noh dramas are performed, etc.

Having survived various metamorphoses, Shintoism still retains its vitality, being an important factor in the unity of the Japanese nation. However, many of today's Shinto practitioners (more than 100 million people) perceive Shinto not as a religion, but as a form of culture that connects the past and present of Japan. Rites of Shinto origin are considered in this sense as elements of Japanese national customs.

The plasticity of Shintoism allowed it to easily adapt to other religious traditions. Thus, for many centuries it coexisted with Buddhism and experienced its significant influence.

Review questions

1. Who are the Kami?
2. Which goddess occupies a dominant position in the Shinto pantheon?

Kojiki. Records of ancient deeds. St. Petersburg, 1994.

Konrad N. I. Essays on the cultural history of medieval Japan. M., 1980. Meshcheryakov A. N. Ancient Japan. Buddhism and Shintoism. M., 1987. Nakorchevsky A. A. Shinto. St. Petersburg, 2000.

Svetlov G. E. The path of the gods. M., 1985.

Sansom J.B. Japan. Brief history culture. St. Petersburg, 1999.

Japan today is one of the most highly developed capitalist countries. Japan is an example of how resources can be used efficiently, bringing the country to a new level, with a highly developed economy, political system, with a modern lifestyle while respecting ancient traditions and cultures. Japanese national religion is multifaceted.

Every Japanese citizen by law has the right to practice any religion, without limiting himself to tradition.

According to a survey, more than 70% of the entire Japanese population consider themselves atheists. Despite this, the Japanese national religion is rich in various cults and rituals, which almost every resident of the Japanese Islands has resorted to at least once in their life.

When conducting wedding ceremonies, or funeral services, canons and traditions of the Christian religion, or .

Funeral services for the dead always take place exclusively in temples of the Buddhist religion.

Up to 30 percent of the total population of modern Japan honor ancient traditions and make pilgrimages to holy places. When opening new stores and crowded places, ancient rituals are used along with modern traditions.

The main religion of Japan is Shintoism

Shintoism is one of the most ancient religions, which began to emerge long before the emergence and formation of feudalism in Japan. The Japanese religion - Shintoism is based on the belief and worship of various deities. In Shintoism, great importance is given to honoring the souls of deceased people. If we literally translate the name of the faith “Shintoism,” we get “the ways of the gods.”

According to Japanese religion, every object on earth, animated or inanimate, every dewdrop has its own essence, which is called kami . Every stone, mountain, river has a soul that is invisible to the human eye. Kami have different natural phenomena.

A spiritual entity, according to Japanese religion, for example, the soul of a deceased person, is the patron and protector of individual families, and even entire clans. Kami is an imperishable, eternal substance that takes part in the endless cycle of death and life on earth.

The religious canons of the Japanese religion regulate the lives of people in Japan. The main thing is the unity and mutual understanding of man and nature. Shintoism is a religion that unites under its wing all living and nonliving things in this world.

The concepts of good and evil principles inherent in every world religion are quite specific, difficult to perceive and understand by representatives of European religions. Unlike many other faiths, Shintoism does not deny the presence of other worlds and evil spirits, from which it is not only possible, but also necessary to protect oneself by conducting occult rituals and using protective symbols.

Shintoism is a kind of propaganda for the use of all kinds of protective totems, amulets, and the use of magical rituals.

Buddhism is a Japanese religion and one of the most widespread religions in the world. began to emerge in the sixth century, and the spread of the new creed was carried out by five sacred monks who came from Korea and India.

Over the more than one and a half thousand history of its formation and development, the religion of the Japanese Islands has become very heterogeneous. The Buddhist religion has a significant number of different beliefs, schools and movements that reveal absolutely different aspects basic Buddhist belief.

Some schools specialize exclusively in Buddhist philosophy, others teach the art of meditation, a third school teaches how to read and understand mantras, and some beliefs emphasize the cultural aspects of Buddhism.

Despite such a wide variety of different schools and movements, each of them enjoys great success among the Japanese population.

Christianity

Christianity, which came to the islands in the second half of the 16th century, was received very hostilely among the population. Many missionaries were executed, some renounced their faith. The reason for this was the total implantation of the Catholic faith in all spheres of life. Today, the Christian religion is practiced by more than 10 percent of the Japanese population.

Video: Shinto wedding in Japan

Development of syntonism

The first mythological monuments of Japan dating back to the 7th-8th centuries. AD, - Kojiki, Fudoki, Nihongi - reflected the complex path of formation of the system of Shinto cults. A significant place in this system is occupied by the cult of dead ancestors, the main of which was the clan ancestor ujigami, symbolizing the unity and cohesion of the members of the clan. The objects of veneration were the deities of the earth and fields, rain and wind, forests and mountains, etc.

On early stages The development of Shinto did not have an orderly system of beliefs. The development of Shinto followed the path of forming a complex unity of religious and mythological ideas of various tribes - both local and those who came from the mainland. As a result, a clear religious system was never created. However, with the development of the state and the rise of the emperor, the Japanese version of the origin of the world, the place of Japan and its sovereigns in this world is formed. Japanese mythology claims that in the beginning there were Heaven and Earth, then the first gods appeared, among whom was a married couple Izanagi And Izanami, which played a major role in the creation of the world. They disturbed the ocean with a huge spear tipped with a precious stone, dripping from the tip sea water formed the first of the Japanese islands. Then they began to run around the sky pillar and gave birth to other Japanese islands. After Izanami's death, her husband Izanagi visited the kingdom of the dead, hoping to save her, but was unable to. Returning, he performed a rite of purification, during which he produced the Sun Goddess from his left eye - Amaterasu - from the right - the god of the Moon, from the nose - the god of rain, who devastated the country with a flood. During the flood, Amaterasu went into a cave and deprived the earth of light. All the gods, having gathered, persuaded her to go out and return the Sun, but they succeeded with great difficulty. In Shintoism, this event is, as it were, reproduced in holidays and rituals dedicated to the arrival of spring.

According to mythology, Amaterasu sent her grandson Ninigi to earth so that he could control people. The Japanese emperors, who are called tenno(heavenly sovereign) or Mikado. Amaterasu gave him “divine” regalia: a mirror - a symbol of honesty, jasper pendants - a symbol of compassion, a sword - a symbol of wisdom. These qualities are attributed to the highest degree to the personality of the emperor. The main temple complex in Shintoism was the shrine in Ise - Ise jingu. In Japan, there is a myth according to which the spirit of Amaterasu, who lives in Ise Jingu, helped the Japanese in the fight against the Mongol conquerors in 1261 and 1281, when the divine wind " kamikaze"Twice destroyed the Mongolian fleet heading to the shores of Japan. Shinto shrines are rebuilt every 20 years. It is believed that the gods enjoy being in one place for just that long.

Levels of syntonism

In Shinto, there are several levels, which are determined by the objects and subjects of the cult.

Dynasty Shinto is the property of the imperial family. There are gods that only family members can invoke, and rituals that can only be performed by family members.

Emperor cult(Tennoism) - obligatory for all Japanese.

Temple Shinto - worship of general and local gods, which exist in every locality and protect people living under their protection.

Homemade Shinto - worship of tribal gods.

At the beginning of the 6th century. in Japan and become known. Gradually, Buddhism begins to play a significant role in the life of Japan; Buddhism and Shinto interpenetrate and complement each other. The deities of Buddhism are accepted in Shintoism, and vice versa. Shintoism, with its collectivistic nature, serves the needs of the community, while Buddhism, which is personal in nature, focuses on the individual. A situation arises that is called rebusinto(double path of the gods). Buddhism and Shintoism have coexisted peacefully for several centuries.

Agreeing with the above description, let us dwell on the specific features of the Japanese religious tradition, which expressed the spirit of the nation and influenced the mentality, history, culture, political, state and social life of the country.

Kami

The Japanese name for the folk faith, as noted earlier, is denoted by the phrase kami no michi. Kami are objects of cult: they are worshiped both in public services and in home prayer.

Finding an adequate translation of this word is quite difficult. In European languages this term is translated as "God", "deity" or "spirit". Among researchers today there is no consensus regarding the etymology of this word. However, the most common and probable version is its origin, described by the famous linguist Oono Susumu, who “raising the word kami to the ancient kama, indicates the three main meanings in which it was used: 1) thunder, thunderstorm; 2) a terrible wild beast like a tiger or wolf; 3) mountains."

In other words, in in this case we are dealing with an archaic idea of spirits capable of inhabiting various forms, usually striking the human imagination. This idea is called in science "fetishism".

It is significant that the Japanese consciousness was also characterized by the belief in the animation of all things, that is hylozoism, or animism.

One of the famous modern researchers of Japanese religions points out: “Japanese myths speak of the existence of eight hundred myriads of kami- such a metaphor expressed faith in the divinity of the entire Universe."

From the standpoint of Shintoism, people, animals and inanimate objects (for example, stones) are not only alive, animate and therefore can grow (but only very slowly), but also spiritualized, since they are associated with kami, supervising the life of the world and, if necessary, intervening in the course of its history.

From the point of view of the origin of the cult and, accordingly, the method of entry into the pantheon, everything kami can be roughly divided into four categories:

1 . Revered among the people. As a rule, these kami are guardians and inhabitants of localities or the souls of deceased ancestors, often they do not have their own names, iconographic images, or even permanent altars. Examples include: kami mountains, kami streams, kami natural forces, spirits of ancestors.

2 . Foreign divine characters by origin. They have their own names and individual images. Classic examples of such characters: seven gods of happiness(Daikoku, Ebisu, etc.). Separate altars are built in their honor, sometimes as “additional chapels” in churches kami higher level.

3 . Historical characters or widely revered patrons of special places. They are not mentioned in mythological sources and do not have sacred images, but their personal names are known. These kami have many temples, chapels and altars scattered throughout the country. A classic example of this kind is Tenjin, patron of poetry and science, who is the deification of a real historical figure - Sugawara no Michizane, a poet of the 9th century.

4 . Mythological deities mentioned in ancient mythological collections, as well as their descendants, which were recognized as the deceased members of the imperial house. These deities are associated with state religiosity and therefore were revered everywhere. At one time, he built many sanctuaries at state expense. However, these characters are not so popular among the people and do not enjoy the same trust and love of people as the historical kami. As examples, we can point to the main deity of the pantheon, Amaterasu, who is the patron of the reigning family and the emperor himself.

Kami were endowed tama(souls, spiritual forces), of which each of them could have several. In one of the ancient mythological collections, the supreme deity Amaterasu testifies: “My formidable spirit [arami-tama] cannot approach the imperial residence.”

In a functional sense kami may have the following tama:

– Arami-tama, governing the world and allowing kami interfere with the natural course of processes;

– nigimi-tama related to harmony and memory;

– kushimi-tama, capable of performing miracles and transformations;

– sakimi-tama, giving bliss.

Along with the revered divine personalities mentioned above, Japan was also known grief. According to beliefs, these are evil spirits, which could become the souls of enemies or people who died tragically, in circumstances considered undesirable.

In addition, there was a belief that the souls of animals after death could also turn into demons (mono, or mononoke) and harm a person.

Key texts for the Shinto tradition

A distinctive feature of Shintoism is the absence of any canonical texts in the literal sense of the word. Nevertheless, there are ancient chronicle tales, which are at the same time collections of myths “about the origin” (Shinto in spirit and content).

Kojiki(“Notes on Ancient Affairs”, or “Notes on the Deeds of Antiquity”) - a collection of records about the events of the beginning of time, compiled by order of Emperor Temmu at the end of the 7th century AD. e. and completed in 712. This is the oldest known Japanese book. It's written Chinese characters, with the help of which the compiler of the text tried to convey the sounds of the Japanese language. Here are collected and organized myths telling about the emergence of gods, the world and people, as well as the emergence of the institution of royal power, contains a description of the legendary rulers of antiquity, as well as real historical rulers before 628 AD. e.

Nihongi(“Japanese Chronicles”) - a collection of records about past years, compiled in Chinese in 720 AD. e. It covers the same period as the Kojiki text, but takes the narrative of events up to 700 CE. e. The influence of the Chinese cultural tradition on the compilers of this chronicle was manifested in the fact that it included sections borrowed from Chinese chronicles and telling about the life of the Chinese royal houses.

The following works are less significant from the point of view of studying mythology, but provide additional information about the Shinto tradition.

Kogoshui(“Collection of Ancient Stories”) – a mythological collection. Written in 807 AD. e. the priest Imbe no Hironari, who, with the help of this text, tried to establish the authority of his priestly family, which preserved traditions not mentioned in the Kojiki and Nihongi. At the same time, the main storyline of the two previous collections in Kogoshui is also presented.

Engi-shiki(“Rites of the Engi Period” (901–923 AD)) is a collection of prayers compiled in 927 AD. e. Despite the date being later than the previous texts, this work reflected religious ideas dating back to much more ancient centuries.

Fudoki(“Description of Land Customs”) is a text that, in addition to geographical materials, contains many notes about traditions, beliefs, and rituals that took place in the provinces of the state. It was created over a period of twenty years from 713 to 733 by decree of the emperor. Not all fudoki have survived. A significant part of them is known exclusively from quotations.

Manyoshu- a collection of ancient poetry compiled after 760. The earliest poems date back to the 4th century AD. e. It also reflects the life, rituals and mythology of Ancient Japan.

Shinto mythology

Theogony and cosmogony

In the Kojiki and Nihongi, the beginning of the world is described with some differences as follows.

The beginning of the universe

In the beginning, the Universe was in a state of chaos, like a boundless ocean of butter or a huge egg in which no parts could be distinguished. In this primordial substrate something like a reed shoot arose. This was the first deity.

It stood at the origins of the appearance of the next seven generations of gods. Each generation was represented by one marriage couple (god/goddess). Probably, in this case we are dealing with the personification of the primordial elements.

The emergence of the Japanese islands

The seventh pair of deities was destined to play a special role in the formation of the world. This couple were Izanagi(“Calling Husband”) and Izanami(“Summoning Woman”)

These spirits stood together on the Sky Bridge, thrust the heavenly spear into the sea of chaos below, and stirred it until it thickened. When the spear was removed from the liquid, viscous drops fell from the tip back into the ocean and formed the island of Onogoro (lit. "Self-thickened").

Izanagi and Izanami descended into the world that had begun to form in order to continue creation. The resulting island was called the “Middle Pillar”, that is, it became the axis of the world ( axis mundi).

The deities entered into a marriage union. However, due to a violation of the ritual of communication between male and female representatives, the first children turned out to be freaks, and therefore the parents, without a twinge of conscience, immediately got rid of them. Only after all ritual norms are observed, the rest of the Japanese islands, as well as the deities of various elements and natural phenomena: the sea, winds, trees, herbs, etc., become the fruits of divine marriage.

The appearance of death

The last act of birth was the birth of the fire deity. Izanami did not survive this birth and, being scorched by her child, came into a state of death agony. New deities are also born from the secretions of her body: mountain deities from vomit, dirt deities from excrement.

Izanagi, seeing his wife’s suffering, sobs - and from his tears new gods are also born. Then, in desperation, he grabs a sword and cuts off the head of the son who burned his mother. Divine spirits also emerge from the blood of the beheaded fire god.

However, Izanami dies and ends up in Land of darkness, or Country of yellow springs.

The presented plots indicate the existence in the minds of the ancient Japanese of the idea of a tripartite division of the world, well known from the archaic myths of different peoples: "High Sky Plain"(Takama no hara); "The Manifest World"(Utsisiyo), or the world of people; and also "Lower World"(Yomotsukuni).

An attempt at a “soteriological” feat

The descent into the underworld and its consequences

Izanagi decides to go down to his wife and return her to Earth. Izanami, from her inner chambers in the kingdom of the dead, says that she has already tasted the food of the Land of Darkness and therefore cannot rise to Earth.

Yielding to the persistent requests of her husband, Izanami promises to ask the ruler of the underworld for the opportunity to return to Earth, but in response, he takes an oath from Izanagi that he will not try to enter her home and see her.

A lot of time passes, but the spouse does not return. And then Izanagi breaks off a tine from his comb, sets it on fire and enters inner chambers. In horror, he sees his wife's body decomposing and being eaten by worms and begins to flee.

After him, the angry goddess releases the gods of thunder, born from her decaying flesh, as well as witches ( shikome).

Izanagi tries to stop his pursuers with cunning tricks, throwing pieces of his clothing at them. However, it is possible to stop the chase only at the border of the Land of Darkness and the Land of Light: jumping out through the Level Passage, he blocks it with a huge rock. After this, the dialogue between the spouses begins. Izanami promises that in revenge she will kill a thousand people every day. In response, Izanagi declares that he will build one and a half thousand maternity hospitals. Thus, the failed “soteriological” attempt to remove the dead goddess from the land of death receives resolution in the form of a quantitative superiority of births over deaths.

In conclusion, Izanagi pronounces the ritual formula for divorce, thus finally breaking off relations with his wife. ex-wife.

Ritual purification and completion of the formation of the pantheon

The descent into the underworld made Izanagi unclean, defiled him, so he needed to undergo ritual purification.

He takes a bath in a river stream on Koshu Island. As soon as the clothes were thrown to the ground, new deities emerged from them. The following divine characters are born from his birthmarks. And finally, when the left eye was washed, a goddess appeared from it Amaterasu– “Shining in the sky”, the spirit of the Sun. The moon god appears from the right eye - Tsukiyomi.

The wind god appeared from Izanagi's nostrils Susanoo, also called the “Ardent, Fierce Husband.” The ardent husband immediately showed the violence of his character: he roars, moans and cries. When asked by Izanagi why he is doing this, Susanoo replies that he is grieving for his mother, who remained in the Land of Darkness. The father is angry and throws him out.

Strictly speaking, this is where Izanagi’s active role ends. Probably, having transferred the supreme power to his daughter, Amaterasu, he himself no longer participates in the life of the Universe.

However, Susanoo does not calm down. He decides to visit his sister Amaterasu. She, hearing the noise of his approach, dresses in military clothes and takes a fighting position. The visiting brother tries to calm the goddess down and offers to give birth to new gods as a sign of peace and agreement.

Amaterasu breaks the Furious Husband's sword into pieces, puts them in his mouth and chews them. From the spit out pieces, new male deities are born (since they originated from the sword of Susanoo).

Susanoo does the same with the jasper jewelry of Amaterasu, and from the spit out pieces of jewelry, female deities are born, since they originated from items of women's toilet. The spirits that appeared became a symbol of mutual reconciliation.

However, after some time, Susanoo begins to commit various intrigues: he destroys boundaries in the fields, fills up irrigation canals, and, finally, skins a piebald foal and throws it through the roof of the palace into Amaterasu’s chambers. For this, Susanoo is expelled from heaven.

The goddess gets angry and hides from everyone in the Heavenly Grotto. Concerned gods are forced to jointly lure her out of there. Having placed birds (probably roosters) crowing at night in front of the entrance to the cave, having prepared white clothes and performing the appropriate prayers (norito), the deities gather to contemplate the ecstatic (shamanic - in essence) dance performed by the goddess Ama no uzume.

Amaterasu, attracted by the sounds, looks out of the grotto, and the prudent gods lower the rope behind her so that she cannot return to her refuge.

Thus, peace and order, determined by the regularity of day and night, are restored.

Divine nature of power

Enthroned at the top of the pantheon, Amaterasu decides to hand over the reins of the earthly world to his son Osihomimi(“Abundant Spike”). He, in turn, delegates power to his son Ninigi(“Abundant”), who descends to Earth and, in marriage with the daughter of a local god, gives birth to two sons. The youngest of them gave birth to a child with a simple name Amatsu HikoHikonagistake-Ugayafukiaezu no Mikoto, who in turn becomes the father of the first Japanese emperor Jimmu, thus establishing the line of succession to the throne in the archipelago for centuries.

For centuries, the monarch was perceived in Shinto and, more broadly, in the Japanese tradition in general, not only as the favorite of the supreme, solar deity, but also as his direct descendant. Power over people belongs to him by birthright and cannot be taken away.

The presented tales do not completely exhaust the variety of plots of the myths of early Shintoism. Nevertheless, they contain key elements for the worldview of the ancient Japanese, as well as their later followers. kami no michi ideas about the appearance of the world, gods and people.

People and gods in Shintoism

Kami are not only the progenitors of the imperial family, but of all people in general. In fairness, it should be said that since the ancient man thought of his country as the center of the world and, accordingly, his ethnic group, his fellow tribesmen as people in the proper sense of the word, he was primarily interested in the origin of his people. In all likelihood, for the ancient Japanese it was obvious the origin of his tribe was from kami. The history of other peoples, about which he probably had very vague ideas, was of little interest to him.

This approach was most clearly manifested in the veneration uji-gami– generic kami, the patron spirits of the tribe. One of such patrons of the future imperial family was the goddess Amaterasu, who probably initially had masculine features.

It is significant that the incarnation ujigami- the head of the clan - are considered to be small children, who for this reason are given special attention and respect in Japan.

In addition, there was a belief that spirits could inhabit people (both men and women), making them thus kamshakari(possessed kami) or monotsuki(possessed mono).

It was the animistic perception of the Universe that became the reason for the absence in religious consciousness of any clear boundaries between the world of spirits and the world of people. “The ancient Japanese simply perceived themselves as an integral part of the cosmos, as a “community of living beings” with the nature of kami (divine nature),” writes the famous researcher of Japanese culture, Professor Joseph Kitagawa.

In other words, people are not created, but rather generated kami and are their direct descendants. Man (like kami) has a soul or spiritual power tama, which after death allows him to also become kami.

Shinto's concept of man's posthumous destiny provides a clear vision of the optimistic prospects for each person's personal eschatology. Despite the serious influence of Buddhist teachings on the consciousness of the Japanese, it is believed that anyone who dies becomes kami. This happens regardless of his lifestyle and moral qualities.

Any dead person in Japan is called hotoke, that is buddha, contrary to the doctrine of Buddhism itself, which claims that only a few can repeat the path traversed by the founder of the teaching. This is a striking example of the mutual influence of two religious traditions.

After death the soul tama is located next to the corpse, and if the death was unpeaceful or sudden, then it may become Aratama(“restless, violent spirit”). To pacify him, special ceremonies are held ( shizumeru). Thanks to the action of rituals, as well as the pacifying effect of time, after a few years the soul becomes nigitama(“calm spirit”) After 33 years nigitama joins the community kami, while continuing to maintain contact with their descendants, who are responsible for honoring their ancestors through rituals of meeting the souls of the dead during special celebrations.

Codes of conduct and Shinto rituals

Shintoism, as an archaic religion dating back to the shamanic practices of antiquity, proposed as a paradigm of behavior not adherence to ethical criteria, but adherence to ritual norms. Confirmation of this can be seen in the myth telling about the marriage of Izanagi and Izanami. Rituals were designed to perform regulatory functions in a person’s personal, family and social life.

Shintoism has positive and negative regulatory categories.

In general, the entire set of proper behavior is described in Shintoism by the term cannagara- “following the kami.”

This behavior evokes approval and complacency kami. Positive categories include:

– Hare(“purity”), which implies both external and internal (“spiritual”) state of undefiledness;

– Tadashi(“correctness”) – integrity of behavior, honesty, following one’s duty. To the term tadashi close term Makoto, usually translated as "truthfulness".

They are opposed accordingly:

– Kagare(“defilement”) – external or internal uncleanness, contamination;

– Magasi(“crookedness”) – incorrectness in thoughts, words and actions, infidelity to one’s duty.

It is significant that defilements are associated with two things: blood (and all kinds of bodily secretions in general) and death (and everything connected with it).

At the same time, in Shintoism there is a concept tsumi, the most adequate translation of which should be considered the term “misdemeanor” or even “crime”.

In traditional Shinto prayer called

Minazuki no tsugomori no ooharae ("Great expulsion [of sins] on the last day of the month of Minazuki"), listed offenses ( tsumi) are divided into two categories: "heavenly transgressions" And "earthly transgressions".

In the quotation below from the said text, the translator, trying to adapt Shinto categories to the European consciousness, for which the category of sin is fundamentally important, did not quite correctly convey the term "tsumi" as "sins":

«<...>Many sins were heavenly sins: those heavenly sins were the destruction of boundaries, filling ditches, destroying gutters, re-seeding, driving in stakes, skinning alive, skinning from back to front, leaving uncleanliness.”

«<...>There are many earthly sins: cutting the skin of a living person, cutting the skin of a dead person; people with leprosy; tumor; abuse of one's own mother, abuse of one's own child, abuse of a mother and her own children; over a child and his mother, the sin of intercourse with animals, trouble from a crawling insect, trouble from Takatsukami, trouble from birds from above, damage to someone else’s livestock, sin of divination.”

Some of the listed sins are extremely difficult to interpret. However, it is obvious that "heavenly" offenses mainly associated with agriculture and livestock breeding, while "earthly" crimes belong to the social sphere. It can be assumed that the first sins were considered the most serious, because they threatened the life support of society. It is significant that it was for such sins that the divine Ardent husband Susanoo was punished.

Shinto piety means striving for abstinence ( them) from everything that is associated with filth, as well as periodic fasting. Fasting can vary in duration, usually from one to three days. Sometimes this period extends to 81 days. by them observed, in particular, by priests before performing rituals. During fasting, it is prescribed to abstain from wine, meat foods, and dishes prepared using ground grains. The described food abstinence symbolically opposes the behavior of Izanami, who tasted the food of death.

It is important that only “clean” water and “pure” fire (produced with flint or friction) are used for cooking. The possibility of ritual impurity presupposes the existence not only of ways to avoid it, but also of purification. In accordance with the practice set by the mythological hero Izanagi, who performed ablutions after returning from the Land of Darkness, there is a custom of ritual ablutions (misogi) after contact with anything that makes a person ritually unclean (kagare).

Ablution is performed in a certain sequence - from bottom to top. If there is no water, you can use its “dry residue” - sea salt. The Japanese quite often use it as a means to cleanse all things and spaces.

Getting rid of wrongdoing ( tsumi) – the process is more complex. However, it does not go beyond ritualism. Rite of purification ( harai) in the form as described in the already cited Minazuki no tsugomori no ooharae(“Great expulsion [of sins] on the last day of the month of Minazuki”), mentions, in particular, the actions of the great priest, who must cut down the lower branches of trees, prepare reeds, perform sacrifices, pronounce the words of the spell, transferring the perfect act to the jurisdiction of special kami. They, in turn, must assign tsumi on the waves of water flowing into the underworld and carrying away the nasty burden to the Land of Darkness.

To understand the essence of what is happening during cleansing, it is important to realize that the same word “ harai" is used to denote commodity-money relations. In other words, this is nothing more than buying favor kami, returning their favor through payment in sacrifices.

Shinto public worship

There are about 100,000 shrines of varying sizes and degrees of veneration throughout Japan.

Traditionally, a Shinto shrine is designated by the term jinja("sanctuary"). Particularly revered and historically significant - hide(“great sanctuary”). There are also free-standing altars or chapels called hokora.

A specific feature of a Shinto temple, which visually distinguishes it from a Buddhist prayer house, is the U-shaped arches - torii. They separate the sacred temple space from the profane territory of the rest of the world.

Through torii(and there may be many of them) those praying find themselves inside the sanctuary. There is usually a special room here Hayden(“hall for veneration”) - a place where believers are present at divine services, as well as Hayden(“offering hall”) – a place for priests to conduct ceremonies.

The most sacred place is shinden("hall kami"), also called honden(“main hall”) This is the place of presence of the object of worship itself, presented in the form of an object containing it - the “body” kami".

In some cases, when this "body" is too large (for example, if it is a sacred mountain), shinden may be completely absent.

In many houses of pious Japanese there are small home altars - kamidana(lit. “shelf for kami"), built in honor of especially revered ancestors or spirits that are significant for a person or for his entire family.

Public rituals are performed by clergy, priests, kannusi. In ancient times, it was believed that during the performance of temple rituals, the priest was possessed by a spirit kami. In other words, kannusi The role of a shaman was typical.

Historically, there were four famous priestly clans: Nakatomi, Imbe, Sarume and Urabe. All of them, with the exception of Urabe, traced their family to one of the deities mentioned in the myths. Each clan was considered the guardian of certain rituals.

Liturgical clothing kannusi dates back to the vestments of dignitaries of the medieval royal court. It is long-haired and light in color. The head is crowned with a special black cap.

The number of priests varies depending on the status of the sanctuary and its ability to support clergy. Many small rural churches do not have a permanent clergyman at all.

Some temples, such as the ancient and highly revered Ise Shrine, also contain miko- temple maidens, who historically played the role of shaman-soothsayers, and now have become an attribute of calm ritual dances in honor of the deity.

It is necessary to highlight the key structural points of Shinto public worship. The first step on the path to the temple action is the ritual ablution mentioned above. misogi.

Next comes the ritual of purification ( harae), consisting of the utterance kannusi– special cleansing spells ( haraekotoba) and blessings of the worshipers with a ritual rod with strips of white paper attached to it.

After this, the ceremony participants sit on mats and the ritual of invocation or descent is performed. kami(Kamioroshi), as a result of which he must condescend to his admirers. At this moment special music often plays. Kannusi makes an offering (kensen) of food to the “descended” deity. Then kannusi reads norito- a prayer of praise. At the end of the hymn of praise, believers make personal offerings to God in the form of tamagushi- twigs of a sacred tree with strips of white paper attached to them. This is a symbol of requests addressed to the spirit.

The next action is the removal of sacrificial food (tetsusen): kannushi takes food from the altar that has been sanctified by power kami. Now the offerings can be consumed ( naorai), often using consecrated sake(Miki).

The service ends with a symbolic send-off of the spirit or “uplifting” kami(Kamiagari).

In addition to the usual (ordinary) temple services, there are also wide celebrations of a festival nature, attracting a significant number of people, usually called matsuri- "holiday". There are several versions regarding the origin of this word – “matsuri”. The most probable is considered to be the one that indicates the origin of the word from the verb matzo – "wait". Respectively, matsuri literally means "waiting at a given time in certain place don't see something

something that will certainly appear and that should be welcomed with great respect."

Quantity matsuri extremely large. The most famous are the celebrations associated with the agricultural seasons, as well as temple celebrations (reitai).

External forms matsuri very diverse. Divine services in each sanctuary have their own characteristics, and therefore a complete description of them is, in principle, hardly possible. However, as a rule, they include wide public celebrations with mass processions and dances. The essence of what is happening is unity with kami, participating in festivities and having fun with their admirers. Modern folk festivities that take place during Shinto celebrations are a largely desacralized version of the ecstatic shamanic dances of antiquity, through which communication with deities was carried out.

Shinto: a look through the ages

Since the 6th century AD. e., when state power Japan adopted the veneration of Buddha as a state ideology, Shintoism faded into the background. It did not disappear, but it was constantly in fierce competition with the new faith. At the same time, along with Buddhism, the influence of Taoism and Confucianism on the life of the Japanese was quite noticeable.

The state, while supporting Buddhism through administrative methods, at the same time sought to regulate the life of Shintoism and use it for its own purposes.

So, in the 7th century AD. e. the emperor took the title Akitsumami-to amenoshita shiroshimesu Yaiato no sumera-mikoto("Living Kami, Lord of the World and Emperor of the Yamato Kingdom").

At the turn of the 7th-8th centuries, a special department was established - Department of Shinto Affairs. The heads of priestly clans entered his bureaucracy and thus received high-ranking privileges, while at the same time finding themselves under the control of state power.

Allowing Shintoism to exist within the country, the government for many centuries tried to the best of its ability to promote the establishment of Buddhism. One of the striking examples of this can be considered the publication in 685 of a special command: “... in every house a Buddhist altar should be built and an image of Buddha and Buddhist texts should be placed in it. Worship should be performed at these altars with offerings of food."

The degree of pressure on Shinto from authorities sympathetic to Buddhism varied. Nevertheless, the imperial house did not refuse the services of the national religion, which raised it directly to the supreme deity Amaterasu.

In the 12th century, the official monarch was actually removed from real governance. In practice, the real rulers of Japan are shoguns- heads of the most politically and militarily powerful clans. The shoguns supported Buddhism with even greater enthusiasm and zeal, seeing in it a religious tradition that was indifferent to the claims to divine honors of the emperor removed from the political arena.

This situation continued until 1868, when, after an era of conflicts and unrest, the emperor Meiji(1852–1912) managed to regain real power. The emperor undertook large-scale reforms in all spheres of life: economics, military affairs, administration, etc. Japan embarked on the path of assimilating the best achievements of European civilization, while simultaneously trying to rethink them in relation to its own history and culture.

The necessary elevation of the emperor, who had regained real power and become the inspirer of reforms, was supposed to be achieved by returning him to divine dignity. For this purpose, Shintoism was returned to the status of the dominant religion, assigning it the role of the bearer of the ideology of national revival, transformation of the state and society.

At the same time, there is a growth in national self-awareness, which leads to strengthening of nationalist tendencies.

In foreign policy These trends led to wars of conquest: the Japanese-Chinese (1894–1895) and the Russian-Japanese (1904–1905), from which the Land of the Rising Sun emerged victorious. In 1910, Korea is annexed.

The First World War begins in 1914 world war, which Japan enters, being bound by an allied treaty with Great Britain. Taking advantage of the favorable situation, it occupies all territories previously controlled by Germany in China and the Pacific region. At the Versailles Conference, which summed up the results of the global international conflict, Japan participated as one of the victorious countries.

Victories on the battlefields inspired nationalist movements to new achievements. Throughout the country, persecution of people associated with a foreign culture or religious tradition began.

In the 30s of the 20th century, Japan lived under the influence of the ideas of militarism and nationalist chauvinism. The Second Sino-Japanese War takes place from 1937 to 1945. On December 7, 1941, the famous raid on Pearl Harbor was carried out, which actually became the beginning of an armed confrontation with the United States and Great Britain in the framework of World War II. At the same time, Hong Kong, the Philippines and the Malay Peninsula were conquered.

During the hostilities, everyone was amazed by the courage and self-sacrifice of Japanese soldiers, who were ready to give their lives not only in the name of achieving victory, but also in order to gain a tactical advantage during a military operation. Special suicide squads were created - kamikaze.

The most famous of them are pilots who were preparing to make a single flight in order to bring their plane down on the enemy at the end of the mission. For this purpose, even special aircraft-shells were made, filled with explosives, the return of which to the air base was not initially intended.

There was a religious concept according to which Amaterasu assigned the pilots a special mission to protect Japan. The dead were glorified as heroes, declared kami, temples were erected in their honor, and the families enjoyed great respect from their compatriots. There were many more young people willing to give their lives for the emperor and the country than there were aircraft suitable for this purpose.

On August 6 and 9, 1945, US aircraft carried out atomic bomb attacks on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. On August 9, the USSR enters the war with Japan. As a result of these events, on September 2, 1945, the Act of Unconditional Surrender of Japan was signed.

In December 1945, an order on religious associations was issued, giving religions freedom of action. Shinto was stripped of its privileged status as a national religion and ideology. Already in February 1946, it was created Jinja honte(lit. “Central Temple Bureau”) – Shinto Shrine Association, uniting 80,000 of the 100,000 Shinto shrines. In 1947, Japan adopted a new secular constitution.

Today, the majority of the Japanese, although in practice they are not very religious people, at the same time consider themselves to belong simultaneously to the Buddhist and Shinto religious traditions. “Nowadays, a person gets married in a Shinto shrine, lives his life according to Confucian social precepts, adheres to some Taoist beliefs in “fortune” or “misfortune,” participates in folk festivals, and is buried in a Buddhist temple.”

Literature

Japan: Profile of a Nation. Tokyo – New York – London, Kodansha International, 1994.

Gods, shrines, rituals of Japan: Encyclopedia of Shinto / ed. AND. . (Orientalia et Classica: Proceedings of the Institute of Oriental Cultures and Antiquity; issue 26.) M.: RSUH, 2010.

Dale Saunders E. Japanese mythology // Mythology ancient world/ lane from English, preface I. M. Dyakonova. M.: Nauka, 1977. pp. 405–431.

Kitagawa J.M.. Religion in the history of Japan / trans. from English N.M. Seliverstova. St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2005.

Nakorchevsky A.A. Shinto. St. Petersburg: ABC-classics - St. Petersburg Oriental Studies, 2003.

Norito. Sammyo, trans. L. M. Ermakova. M.: Nauka, 1991.

Shinto is the way of the Japanese gods. Essays on the history of Shinto: in 2 volumes. St. Petersburg: Hyperion, 2002.

Animism(from lat. anima- “soul”) - belief in the existence of many spirits inhabiting the world around us. Sometimes this form of belief is simply called "worship of nature and spirits." Almost synonymous with this concept is the term hylozoism(from the Greek ὑ᾿ λη - “matter” and ζωη " - “life”). Animism as a form of belief should be distinguished from the religious theory of the same name. The author of this theory is the British anthropologist E. B. Tylor, who formulated it in the book “Primitive Culture "(1871). Along with designating a certain type of religious worldview, Tylor used this term to define his concept, according to which religion appears through a person’s comprehension of the experience of being in a “borderline state” (sleep, ecstasy, intoxication), during which a person, as he likes, seems to communicate with spirits. Tylor believed that animism is a “minimum of religion.” In other words, in his opinion, all religions from primitive to the most highly developed come from animistic views immediately after their emergence from a number of famous religious scholars ( M. Müller, E. von Hartmann).

Religion in the history of Japan / trans. from English N. M. Seliverstova. St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2005. P. 24. ◄